Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Role-playing game motivation

Role-playing games are a popular form of entertainment and have evolved into several different mediums from computer games to live action, allowing players to create characters and narratives to explore in fantasy settings. These allow players an outlet to explore different identities, perspectives and, social interactions within a safe environment.

But what motivates players to get into the hobby and continue to engage with it? Through the self-determination theory (SDT; Deci, & Ryan, 1985) some understanding of what motivates these players are and the psychosocial elements present which can affect this motivation.

This chapter focuses on understanding the psychosocial elements of role-playing games that motivate and enhance player engagement. This is done through the lens of SDT, as it provides a framework to view how players can be motivated through intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors to continue playing RPGs and how understanding the factors of motivation involved may be applied to other areas such as education or the workforce.

Role-playing games have developed into several different formats over the course of their time as a popular form of entertainment, such varieties include Live-action, Tabletop, and video game RPGs which can be single player or massively multiplayer online. These different forms allow for variations in how the role-playing can be played out, often a video game will provide less creativity for actions to the players than a tabletop game would.

Live action Role-playing, also known as LARP is like improvisational theatre. Players must physically act out their characters actions rather than describe them, and similarly the real environment is used to represent the fictional setting of the game world.

LARP typically uses costumes and props in addition to venues that have been prepared to reflect fictional or fantasy settings. In live-action pole-play participants also act out combat scenarios with prop weapons such as foam swords (Cyril et al., 2019).

Tabletop role-playing games are arguably the most recognisable format due to the popularity of TTRPGs such as Dungeons & Dragons which was the first commercially available RPG published during the 1970s. while also being closely related to pen-and-paper RPGs in their mechanics and how they are played.

TTRPGs have rulebooks that can be followed by the gamemaster and players to inform them on what, enemies, weapons, abilities, classes or spells that can be used within a playthrough. TTRPGs typically have a Gamemaster (GM) who will guide the narrative and the players towards their goal, the GM also controls non-player characters (NPCs) within the story this is done through verbally describing the world and any situation that the players may find themselves within it and how NPCs react to any actions taken by the players.

The players in TTRPGs create characters which fit into a class such as a mage or warrior, which often will help the player decide how they will act or perform within the story (Liapis & Denisova, 2023).

As computer games have become popularised the ideas of TTRPGs been translated to electronic media in various forms. There are two broadly defined types of video game RPGs, those being single player role-playing games and massively multiplayer online role-playing games.

Single Player RPGs are a loosely define genre of games which share similarities to role-playing games such as D&D, basing much of their mechanics, settings and the terminology used on those found in TTRPGs such as character and stat creation and interactive narratives which can change depending on player actions.

This adaptation provides players with a visual and interactive form of role-playing but can provide limits to how a player can interact with the game due to constraints of the games themselves which may not allow complete freedom in every facet otherwise available in TTRPGs (Ryan et al., 2006).

Another popular form of video game RPG are MMORPGs, which are different from single player experiences by the number of players who can interact with one another creating large social interactions between players through a persistent world which can change even if a player is offline and away from the game, this is hosted and maintained on servers owned by the game’s publisher.

MMORPGs typically allow for players to form and join groups together to work towards a common goal or reward, or simply to establish social interactions and communities within the game world.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation from the humanistic psychology perspective which consists of mini theories proposed by Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan in 1985.

While the theory was later expanded upon, further separating the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and the addition of three basic psychological needs which motivate behaviour which are autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

There are six mini theories currently seen in the modern version of SDT, which address one facet of motivation or personality functioning, attempting to explain different motivationally based behaviours and phenomena.

This theory focuses on intrinsic motivation and how competence, autonomy and, social context influences motivation, in other words CET attempts to explain how extrinsic factors can affect intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2012) CET describes two processes by which intrinsic motivation can be affected.

The first of which describes that events such as a reward from completing a behaviour or if there is a feeling of having a choice to complete a behaviour, can either undermine or enhance an individual’s intrinsic motivation depending on whether this event leads to a perceived lack of autonomy and an external locus of causality or if there is a perceived level of autonomy and an internal one.

The second process proposes that events such as positive feedback leads to increasing an individual’s perceived competence by supporting the competence need and enhancing the intrinsic motivation of that individual, it should be noted that for the positive feedback to enhance motivation it must be for activities or behaviours that are autonomously motivated or within an autonomy supportive context (Deci & Ryan, 2012). In contrast negative feedback that leads to a perceived incompetence has the opposite effect and will lead to undermining intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2012).

The OIT focuses on extrinsic motivation and proposes that humans are growth orientated which manifests as the concept of internalisation. OIT suggests different types of extrinsic motivation fall upon a continuum of internalisation, which consists of external regulation, introjection, identification, and integration. The more internalised the extrinsic motivation the higher the level of autonomy is felt when a behaviour is acted out(Reeve, 2012).

OIT also looks at the social contexts and how it can impact an individual in deeply accepting or resisting values or goals and how that can enhance or forestall internalisation. OIT ties in with the concepts of autonomy and relatedness in affecting motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2002, Deci & Ryan, 2012).

COT describes three types of causality orientations to explain the differences between how people regulate behaviour and orient toward environments in varying ways.

These orientation types include the autonomy orientation in which an individual will act or complete a behaviour out of interest and perceived value in the act; the control orientation in which an individual is focused on any reward, gains, or approval that may come from the act; and lastly the impersonal orientation which is when an individual has anxiety caused by their perceived lack of competency (Deci & Ryan, 2012).

BNT proposes that the three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are predictive and essential to psychological well-being and optimal functioning and if one is facet is being affected there will be negative functional costs associated with it(Reeve, 2012). From this it is argued that situations and environments that support these three factors will impact well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2012, Reeve, 2012).

GCT focuses on the impact on motivation and wellness from intrinsic and extrinsic goals and the distinctions between the two. As goals can be viewed as differentially impacting basic need satisfactions, in turn also being associated with psychological well-being(Reeve, 2012).

Goals like financial success or popularity as extrinsic goals compared to intrinsic goals such as personal growth and developing close and meaningful relationships (Deci & Ryan, 2012, Reeve, 2012).

RMT focuses on relatedness and how developing and maintain close personal relationships or belonging to groups as well as other relationships and how these interactions are essential for an individual’s well-being as these relationships provide satisfaction of the need for relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2014).

• Autonomy – The need for an individual to feel that they are a causal agent in their life, to act on their own volition and experience freedom of will rather than feeling like they are forced to behave or act but that they feel a sense of willingness and choice in acting (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004).
• Competence – The need for an individual to feel they are capable of effectively completing tasks and be efficient in dealing with their surrounding environment. This ability to control the outcome of situations they find themselves in such as work or school and in turn mastering these situations is key in maintaining a sense of competence (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004).
• Relatedness – The need to interact with, be connected to, and experience caring for other people. This desire to create emotional connections with others is evident how people interact in many situations and why they seek out joining groups and activities with others (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004).

There are two types of motivation are proposed by SDT: extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation which creates a taxonomy of motivation which can be used to visually represent levels of motivation across the three orientations

Intrinsic motivation is the internal, natural drive to seek out challenges and development which is associated with optimal cognitive and social development according to SDT (Di Domenico & Ryan, 2017). This form of motivation is the most autonomous orientation as it behaviour that is intrinsically motivated are inherently interesting or enjoyable and are completed in the absence of external reward or punishment (Niemiec & Ryan 2009). The cognitive evaluation theory describes this form of motivation and how social and environmental factors help or hinder it; CET focuses on the SDT needs of competence and autonomy. Also tries to explain how motivation “crowding out” and how it can occur by the intrinsic motivation of an individual being overtaken by extrinsic motivation such as monetary rewards (Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M.,1985).

Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources, and the different ways this motivation can be regulated is explained by the OIT, one of the mini theories of self-determination theory (Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M., 1985). The four types of extrinsic motivation are as follows:

1. Externally regulated behaviour The least autonomous of the 4 types and is when an act is performed due to external demand or a reward. Actions of this type have an externally perceived locus of control

2. Introjected regulation of behaviour When an individual takes on regulations to behaviour that they do not fully accept as their own. This behaviour is seen in people motivated to demonstrate their ability to maintain self-worth which while an internally driven motivation, introjected behaviour is seen as having an externally perceived locus of causality. (Deci & Ryan, 1995).

3. Regulation through identification More autonomously driven compared to the previous two types, this form of extrinsic motivation is when an individual sees value in the extrinsically motivated behaviour and willingly internalises the behaviour so that a sense of choice and personal commitment is felt, this regulation type has an internally perceived locus of causality (Reeve, 2012).

4. Integrated Regulation The most autonomous of the 4 types, occurs when regulations are fully integrated within an individual’s beliefs and values, while this type shares similarities to intrinsic motivation it is still classed as extrinsic but also has an internally perceived locus of causality (Reeve, 2012).

Table 1. Examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Some of the psychosocial elements found within role-playing games are the social connections and relationships that can be fostered by them, in addition to providing a space to improve collaborative skills within safe environments (Higgins, 2023). RPGs also have been found to provide players an environment that supports autonomy and promotes competence through engaging and overcoming challenges presented within the games’ narrative (Higgins, 2023).

TTRPG have also been found to support connectedness to others, and foster cooperation whilst playing through the narrative experience of these as well as an environment that allows them to explore their personality through role-play. Role-playing games have also been found to positively affect critical thinking and problem solving (Higgins, 2023, Yuliawati et al., 2024).

The literature on motivation to play MMORPGs point towards factors such as social interaction, if the game is challenging or competitive, as well as immersion or the ability to escape into the fantasy world provided by the game (Chen, V. H et.al2006). It was also found that one of the most important factors to both enjoyment and the level of engagement was social interaction within MMORPGs, in addition to the skills and challenges that a player acquires and must face (Ryan et al., 2006).

The link between social interaction and engagement found that non-engaged gamers were disinterested in social interaction and viewed it as a waste of and hindering their game play while in contrast engaged gamers valued social interactions and reported it to be both important and enjoyable in their experience playing. This study concluded that a balance between perceived challenges and skills and the types of social interaction within the game where influential in both enjoyment and engagement in playing MMORPGs, (Chen, V. H et.al, 2006). this may be linked with SDT’s concept of relatedness as well as competency as players felt greater enjoyment and engagement when they possessed adequate skills to play the game and if they had the ability to socially interact with other players (Higgins, C. D. 2023).

Further studies on MMORPG motivation, which sampled a Spanish player base of the popular game World of Warcraft found similar importance in the social aspects of online role-playing games. Additional subscales of motivation which also were found to correlate was exploration, which had a considerable link to motivation while, there was a low interest in escaping from reality and identification with the player avatar. (Fuster et.al 2013)

Another study which applied the SDT framework on the factors affecting motivation of MMORPG players found game enjoyment and intentions for future play were significantly related to measurers    of autonomy, competence and relatedness in addition to autonomy and competence being positively related to post-play mood which can further impact on continued engagement as players will want to revisit that increase in mood (Ryan et al., 2006).

Similar studies on motivation for playing MMORPGs found three components which explained player motivation these were the achievement, social and, immersion (Yee, 2006), these components consist of several subcomponents; achievement consists of advancement, mechanics and competition and links can be linked to competence. Social consists of socialising, relationship, and teamwork which can be linked with relatedness, and the final component of immersion which includes discovery, role-playing, customisation, and escapism links to the need for autonomy (Schoenau-Fog, H. 2011., Yee, 2006,).

These support other findings and can be linked with CET concepts such as autonomy linked to, competence and relatedness and how they can affect facilitate or impair both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Ryan et al., 2006).

A scoping review of the potential benefits that TTRPG interventions could provide found while the field is still in an early stage of research, it shows promising signs of effectiveness as a beneficial psychological intervention (Yuliawati et al., 2024). As TTRPGs were shown to promote psychosocial and cognitive skills in their players in addition to preventing negative effects and stress due to how TTRPGs can give players a sense of agency through perceived control over major parts of the game, this can be linked to the need for autonomy found with the SDT framework and other studies looking at player motivation (Schoenau-Fog, H. 2011., Yee, 2006, Yuliawati et al., 2024).

Additional applications of RPG-based motivation may be found in education, as several studies have investigated the positive motivation outcomes from taking elements of TTRPGs and other forms into an education context. These studies have found that role-playing games and gamification can have a positive effect on student academic skills as well as provide opportunity for safe social interactions and collaboration (Almén, B., Ekman, J. 2025, Rosselet & Stauffer, 2013).

Using the self-determination theory to provide insight into how intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be used to explain player engagement with role-playing games in their various forms as these genres of games provide players with opportunity to fulfill the basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness through the social interactions facilitated by RPGs.

Challenges found within these games which require players to adapt and overcome with developed skills and knowledge while also providing players the chance to explore their personalities, ideas, and beliefs in a safe environment also provide motivation to continued engagement with RPGs(Higgins, C. D. 2023).

In addition while the games may provide intrinsic motivation through being an enjoyable experience, extrinsic motivational factors such as rewards and approval of fellow players can also contribute to player engagement and present possible applications within fields such as education as recent studies have shown signs that RPG based interventions in education may be effective in increasing learning motivation outcomes (Cyril, et al., 2019, Niemiec & Ryan, 2009, Reeve, 2012)

• Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Role-playing games, motivation, and emotion (Book chapter, 2023)
• Role-playing game (Wikipedia)
• Self determination theory (Wikipedia)

• 20 Most Popular Theories of Motivation in Psychology
• Britannica entry on role-playing video games and their history
• Self-determination theory website