Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Play motivation

Scenario Bang! Bang! "I’m the sheriff, and this is my deputy, and we run this town. You better come out from behind that tree with your hands up—and don’t even think about trying anything funny!” (see Figure 1). The outlaw jumps out from behind the tree, pistol in hand. “Duck!” I shout, and my deputy and I dive behind the garden wall. “We gotta make a plan—you cover the left and I’ll cover the right,” I whisper. “Okay, on three. One ... two ... three!” We jump out together and blast him to the ground. When the dust settles, we see that he’s only wounded, and deputy says, “We’ve got a nice place for you in our prison—the chicken cage.” Our imagination can turn the backyard into the Wild West.

Play is something people do for fun. It can be silly, make-believe, or just enjoyable. Both kids and adults play. Play is not only about doing something fun, but it is also very important for growing and socialising with others. Other animals also play—birds, foxes, and even reptiles—showing it goes back into our evolutionary past (Burghardt, 2005).

Play is everywhere, but why people and animals play—and continue playing well into adulthood. Self-determination theory (SDT) states that play helps people meet basic needs. These needs include: autonomy (the ability to choose freely), competence (feeling capable and effective), and relatedness (feeling connected to others) (King & Howard, 2016). cognitive theory tells us that play is a way to practice our skills, solve problems, and use and understand symbols. social learning theory views play as a behaviour acquired through observing and imitating others, which are reinforced by praise or guidance.

This chapter brings together these different views of what motivates play and connects them with psychological research.

Play is hard to define. Burghardt (2005) gives a well-known definition of play with five points that make it different from serious behaviour. Play:

1. is not immediately useful
2. done freely and for fun
3. looks different or happens at a different time than serious acts
4. done again and again, but not always in the same way
5. usually happens when things are calm and not stressful

These rules work for many animals, not only humans, so play has its place in nature, not only in culture. In this way, play serves a vital function—it is the place where people and animals go to bond, learn, and practice living together.

From an evolutionary point of view, play is useful because it works like “training for the unexpected.” Spinka et al. (2001) used this phrase to show how young mammals practice quickly switching roles, learning self-control, and recovering after surprise. Play fights, swapping roles, and asking for help build flexibility. They teach emotional regulation, dealing with minor fails, and adapting to new situations. These skills help with survival when there are threats, group changes, or a sudden shift in available resources. Play is also important for teaching animals their group’s social rules. For example, in common marmosets, playing builds tolerance and teamwork that matter later on (Palagi, 1999).

Looking at play through an evolutionary lens also shows its costs, which makes its survival interesting. Play uses a lot of energy and can make animals easier targets for predators. Yet it is a practice that can be found among many animals, meaning the benefits—like practicing a new skill, forming social bonds, or learning to cope better with stress—are stronger than the environmental costs (Spinka et al., 2001; Burghardt, 2005). The point here is that if play helps survival by providing animals new skills and stronger social bonds, then are animals are likely hardwire to find it rewarding.

From a biological perspective, behavioural studies show that exploratory play connects to motivation for mastery, persistence, and early cognitive growth (Jennings et al., 1979). These patterns fit with dopamine systems that reinforce novelty-seeking, and with oxytocin pathways that strengthen social contact during play. Burghardt (2005) investigated evidence across different species showing that animals without early play often develop social and emotional problems, suggesting that play helps build important social and emotional circuits during early stages of growth.

Our biology helps explain why play feels fun. When we explore through play, we get little rewards, including pleasure and social feedback. These rewards push us to keep exploring and practicing, which serves as an adaptive function by developing useful skills.

Play, from the lens of behaviourism, is strengthened by reinforcement and shaped by modelling. Put simply, play persists because it is fun, socially rewarded, and engaging. Horsburgh and Ippolito (2018) showed that in clinical training, beginners take in practices and standards from role models over time. In the same way, children learn how to join games, follow the rules, share their attention, and handle conflicts by watching their peers. Children’s play behaviours are reinforced in two ways: by watching others get included or praised (vicarious reinforcement) and by experiencing it themselves through inclusion or shared laughter (direct reinforcement).

This view shows how outside rewards can either help or hurt play motivation. If things like winning or praise become the only reason to people play, the intrinsic motivation can fade. But if rewards give helpful feedback, they can build skills and keep play enjoyable (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

From a cognitive view, play is like a practice ground for the mind. Children move from experimenting with objects, to pretending and using symbols, and later to more complex games with rules. Research shows that exploratory play is linked to mastery motivation: children who explore tend to persist longer, solve problems better, and show stronger cognitive skills (Jennings et al., 1979). Pretend play uses imagination and perspective-taking, where children act out roles like being a parent or doctor, while trying to remember the goals and rules and change them when needed. From a sociocultural view, these imaginative activities are supported by others, allowing children to practice just beyond their current abilities. Preschool teaching often uses peer interactions to build on these same processes (Gladh et al., 2022).

Humanistic views focus on autonomy, authenticity, and growth. Play gives people space to explore, fail without huge costs, and construct meaning. King and Howard (2016) linked play to SDT's basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, noting that even structured play has choice—children bend rules, change goals, and make experiences together to meet their needs. For adults, play still provides self-expression, fun, and connection, and on a bigger scale it helps with tolerance and cooperation. (Palagi, 2023). In this sense, play is both a means of learning and a way of living well.

Imaginative play is when kids pretend, for example, that a banana is a gun. A meta-analysis found that pretend play is linked with better social skills in young children (Smits-van der Nat et al., 2024). Pretend play makes kids take on roles, talk to each other, and deal with feelings (such as playing doctor-patient). This kind of pretending helps kids think more flexibly and solve social problems. Because imagination moves them out of the physical world, it gives them room to try out new things in a in a safe way.

Social play is about kids interacting, negotiating, and having fun together. In inclusive preschools, support from peers can help social play happen more often and with greater quality (Gladh et al., 2022). Teachers can step in to remind kids to invite others, show them how to join in, and help them keep playing after fights or confusion. When children get better at starting and staying in play, it also shows in class, where they take part more and get along with others.

Cooperative play is when kids come together around shared goals and rules, like building something or solving a puzzle. Research in preschool classrooms shows that social pretend play is linked with better social development, like learning to work better together and deal with conflicts (Jaggy et al, 2023).In this kind of play, kids practice taking roles, taking turns, planning together, and following rules. These teamwork skills can then be deployed in later group learning and work environments.

Solitary play helps with independence, self-control, and exploring things on your own. Group play is more about being with others and learning together, like learning a new game with friends. Kids will often switch between the two, as do adults, for example, engaging in a hobby or joining a sporting team. Both types can meet needs, but in different ways: solitary play gives more independence, while group play gives more connection, and both can build competence (Smits-van der Nat et al., 2024).

Play often begins because someone has decided to engage in something. King and Howard (2016) state play goes with free choice, which fits with SDT by stating that intrinsic motivation comes from autonomy. Even in structured play, kids adjust things to fit what they like, such as adding rules, changing the story, or making new goals. Adults act in a similar way when they choose hobbies that reflect who they are and why it matters to them, e.g, “I like to paint because I am a creative person.”

Play provides challenges that are hard enough to push you, like stacking blocks up higher and higher, making up a new rule, or trying to obtain a personal best in something. This kind of play is linked with persistence and thinking skills (Jennings et al., 1979).

Play works like a social glue for both animals and people. For example, in common marmosets, the young play to build tolerance and cooperation (Palagi, 1999). In humans, adult play also helps keep cooperative societies functioning (Palagi, 2023). Things like laughter, opening time together, and having shared goals make people feel that they belong, which SDT says is a basic need and a strong motivator.

Play makes it acceptable for people to try new things, like new moves, mixing up ideas, or pretending about what could happen. Play is not always useful right away, but its value is in learning and becoming flexible through that learning (Burghardt, 2005). This kind of exploring is not only seen in children, adults also play, like with strategy games, through art, or team sports, and this helps promote curiosity and flexible thinking.

Children will often learn by copying how other kids and peers play. They get feedback, like laughter and acceptance, or sometimes being excluded for cheating and praised for helping. In education, role models also shape behaviour in this way (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018), and the same thing happens on playgrounds and in night clubs. Over time, these patterns become part of who the child is, like saying ‘I am a fair player’ and this serves to keep them motivated.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) states people have three main psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Figure 2). When these needs are met, intrinsic motivation and wellbeing grow. Play usually meets all three. It is chosen freely (autonomy), gives challenges (competence), and it is shared with others (relatedness). King and Howard (2016) state that children’s play is mostly about free or adaptable choice, not just doing what adults telling them, and that too much adult control can hurt intrinsic motivation O’Hara (2017). It also shows that when people feel a sense of choice and personal meaning, intrinsic motivation increases, but when rewards are experienced as controlling—such as excessive praise tied to performance—enjoyment can decrease.

SDT also touches upon extrinsic motivation, rewards, punishments, and gamification. External rewards can help if they give information about progress, because that supports competence without removing autonomy. But if rewards are controlling, they reduce autonomy and interest. Punishments may stop behaviour for a short time but can also damage relationships. Gamification uses points, badges, and leaderboards to make things fun, but if that is the only reason people join in, intrinsic interest can fade. In classrooms and therapy, the challenge is to design systems that support autonomy and competence while keeping play really playful (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Social Learning Theory (SLT) focuses on modelling, reinforcement, and guided participation. Palagi (2023) notes that play, across the lifespan, works as a way to transmit behaviours and social norms. In play, children copy how to join games, what to say in pretend roles, and the rules like fairness and turn-taking. Reinforcement makes these behaviours stick, both from watching others get praised or included (vicarious) and from feeling it themselves, like being welcomed, winning, or just having fun. SLT also points out age differences. Children depend more on getting approval from others, but adults go more on their own norms and habits. Still, peers can have influence in group activities.

SLT also shows how culture gets passed on in play. Games and pretend stories teach things like cooperation, hierarchy, and fairness. In classrooms, teachers can build peer support by telling kids to invite others, showing how to fix fights, and praising inclusive behaviour (Gladh et al., 2022). These social learning processes not only teach valuable skills, they also provide feelings of belonging and competence.

Cognitive developmental theory helps explains play as an important support for children’s thinking and learning. Exploratory play shows mastery motivation and is linked to persistence and cognitive skills (Jennings et al., 1979). In early education, when kids attempt to teach each other something, it can make social play and inclusion grow. Some research has found that pretend play is connected with the development of social skills, because kids take on roles, make up stories, and learn things like seeing things form another’s perspectives, which helps to understand others’ feelings (Smits-van der Nat et al., 2024).

From a cognitive point of view, play helps children develop their executive functions by giving them many chances to focus attention, exercise inhibition, and shift between different ideas while playing. Staying in role, holding back, switching views, and changing plans help kids build flexibility. These small challenges are practice for surprises, giving kids a safe way to learn how to adapt and get along with others (Spinka et al., 2001).

Bringing these theories together helps explain both why play is enjoyable and how it supports development. According to SDT, play is motivating because it meets needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. SLT adds that play is learned and reinforced through modelling and feedback from others. Cognitive perspectives highlight that play strengthens persistence, problem-solving, and imagination (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

The different forms of play show how these theories work in practice. Imaginative play supports autonomy and flexibility as children create roles and stories. Social play highlights relatedness and reinforcement, where children learn social norms like turn-taking from their peers. Cooperative play combines all three theories, as children choose roles, plan together, face challenges, and practice fairness. Even solitary play can support autonomy and problem-solving, while group play deepens relatedness and social learning. Together, these forms of play create cycles where needs are met, skills grow, and enjoyment keeps children engaged.

However, play can lose its benefits when the environment does not support it. Too much adult control can reduce autonomy, lack of models can exclude some children, and limited time or materials can keep play on a superficial level. The best environments balance freedom and guidance so that play stays both enjoyable and developmental.

Play therapy uses imagination and social interaction to help children express feelings, practice coping, and build skills in a safe environment. Activities that get peers involved, like taking turns, working on the same goal, or using visual prompts, can make play more inclusive and help kids learn from each other (Gladh et al., 2022). Therapists can support autonomy by giving choices, build competence with clear feedback, and support relatedness by being warm and responsive. Short play sessions can also make difficult topics feel less intimidating when they are explored through pretend stories (King & Howard, 2016).

Play in teaching makes learning more engaging and helps children remember and use what they learn. It supports social skills for working together and helps with teamwork and solving conflicts. Gamification can provide practice and feedback, but it works best when rewards give information instead of control, so autonomy and interest remain strong (King & Howard, 2016).

In classrooms, teachers can take different practical steps to make play more effective and meaningful to students. They can give choices, such as letting students pick their own tasks or create their own rules. They can keep the challenge at the appropriate skill level by using peer tutoring or rotating roles. Feedback should be clear, not just general praise like "nice work".

Play also helps with creativity because it lets people take risks without big penalties. Burghardt (2005) points out that play is not always useful right away, but it gives variety and novelty, which are the basis for creativity. Adults who keep exploring play often make more original ideas and stay connected in groups, and this goes along with the idea that play helps support cooperation in society (Palagi, 2023).

Adults continue to be playful in many ways: through laughter, sports, role-playing games, and lower stress and strengthen relationships (Palagi, 2023). The Adult Playfulness Trait Scale is used in research to measure traits such as humour, curiosity, imagination, spontaneity, and social playfulness. Adult playfulness is associated with cooperation, tolerance, and wellbeing (Palagi, 2023). In practice, everyday play can reflect these traits and support wellbeing by fostering choice, growth, and connection.

Play is not just a small bonus, but something important for growth, learning, and social life. The theories outlined here help explain both why play endures and how it continues to function across contexts. SDT shows that play feels good because it meets needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Social Learning highlights how people learn to play together with modelling and consequences. Cognitive theories show that play supports imagination, problem-solving, and social understanding. Research on preschools shows that pretend and social play link to social competence (Gladh et al., 2022). Finally, Palagi (2023) states that even adult play helps keep societies more cooperative and tolerant.

In therapy, play can be used to help us explore our feelings, practice coping skills, and develop mastery. It works best when children have free choices and clear feedback. In education, classrooms with lots of play should give room for such choice, the right level of challenge, and peer support. Gamification can be used, but carefully, so it does not diminish intrinsic motivation. For creativity and performance, it helps to keep spaces where people can explore and take risks without major costs to their livelihood.

The field still needs long-term and cross-cultural research to see how different kinds of play shape outcomes in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. More studies should also connect adult playfulness with real benefits in civic life and organisations, using stronger research measurements.

In short, play motivates because it meets core needs and helps individuals, groups, and societies grow.

• Gamification and motivation (Book chapter, 2017)
• Play (Wikipedia)
• Play and emotion (Book chapter, 2014)

• Dr. Stuart Brown's TED Talk, "Play is More Than Just Fun"