Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Neurodiversity and emotion

Case Study on Mia: Mia, a 14-year-old student, experiences frequent sensory overload in noisy classrooms. She becomes anxious when routines change unexpectedly and finds it hard to express how overwhelmed she feels. These challenges sometimes lead to withdrawal or shutdown. With structured support such as predictable routines, clear transitions, and access to sensory breaks, Mia is better able to manage stress and remain engaged in class.

Understanding these challenges is important because emotional dysregulation can affect learning, relationships, and overall wellbeing (Paulus et al., 2021). Neurodiverse individuals may experience emotions more intensely or differently due to variations in brain structure, neural connectivity, and neurotransmitter function (Bertollo et al., 2025). Sensory sensitivities, rejection sensitivity, and difficulty predicting social cues can amplify stress and make adaptive coping harder (Iturmendi-Sabater et al., 2025). Without supportive strategies, these emotional difficulties may contribute to frustration, social withdrawal, or behavioural problems (McLean, 2022).

Neurodiversity refers to the natural variation in human brain structure and functioning that influences how people think, feel, and interact with the world. It recognises that conditions such as autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are not deficits but forms of neurological diversity that shape perception, learning, and emotional experience (Baumer & Frueh, 2021). Autism is characterised by differences in social communication, sensory processing, and flexibility, often accompanied by heightened attention to detail and intense emotional or sensory experiences. ADHD involves variations in attention, motivation, and impulse control, leading to challenges with sustained focus and regulation, but also creativity and high energy (Champ, Adamou, & Tolchard, 2022). Both conditions are associated with distinct patterns of emotional reactivity and regulation, influenced by differences in brain connectivity and neurotransmitter systems. Understanding these patterns helps explain why neurodivergent individuals may experience emotion more intensely or recover from stress more slowly.

Psychological science provides valuable insights and tools to support neurodiverse individuals like Mia and Eli. Understanding emotion regulation in neurodiversity begins with examining its biological and cognitive bases. Theories such as Gross’s Process Model of Emotion Regulation and Self-Regulation Theory explain how emotions arise, how they can be managed, and where regulation may break down (Gross & Thompson, 2007). Polyvagal Theory highlights the role of autonomic nervous system flexibility in social and emotional engagement, helping to explain patterns such as chronic hyperarousal or withdrawal (Barbier et al., 2022). Evidence-based approaches, including coping skills training, social-emotional learning, and personalised behavioural strategies, can enhance emotional control and adaptive functioning (Murray et al., 2023). Together with findings from neuroscience that link emotional regulation to brain connectivity and neurochemical systems, these frameworks provide a foundation for understanding how emotion is regulated in neurodivergent individuals and how support can be most effective.

Gross’s Process Model of Emotion Regulation (2007) explains how people manage emotions across different points in an emotional episode. The model identifies five families of strategies: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change (reappraisal), and response modulation. The first four are antecedent-focused, meaning they act before a full emotional response occurs. The fifth, response modulation, acts after the emotion has emerged (see Figure 2).

These strategies can be applied to understand and support emotional regulation in neurodiverse individuals, particularly those with autism and ADHD. For autistic people, difficulties often arise early in the process. Challenges in identifying emotions or choosing adaptive strategies can lead to reliance on avoidance or repetitive behaviours, which may help reduce sensory or emotional overload in the short term (Cai & Samson, 2025). In ADHD, difficulties are more common in the later stages of the model, such as maintaining and monitoring regulation strategies. Impulsivity and reduced executive control can make it hard to sustain attention or modify responses effectively (Thorell, Tilling, & Sjöwall, 2020).

Techniques that target each stage of the process, such as teaching emotional awareness, practising reappraisal, or using physiological calming methods can strengthen self-regulation. For example, cognitive reappraisal helps reinterpret stressful events, while response modulation strategies such as deep breathing or relaxation help manage intense arousal (Adachi et al., 2025). Applying Gross’s framework in this way allows educators and clinicians to identify which stage of regulation may be disrupted and tailor interventions accordingly, improving both emotional control and social outcomes.

Polyvagal Theory, developed by Stephen Porges (1995–2023), explains how the autonomic nervous system (ANS) supports emotional and social behaviour through three hierarchical response systems: social engagement, mobilisation (fight or flight), and immobilisation (shutdown). When the body senses safety, the ventral vagal system promotes calm states and connection. Under stress, control shifts to the sympathetic system, triggering mobilisation, or to the dorsal vagal system, leading to shutdown (Porges, 2023).

Polyvagal theory proposes that the myelinated vagus enables adaptive emotional and behavioural responses by dynamically regulating the ANS, allowing engagement or disengagement based on environmental risk. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may not execute the “vagal brake,” leading to chronic sympathetic activation, hyperarousal, and reduced autonomic flexibility in response to social stimuli (Barbier et al., 2022).

A key concept is neuroception, the body’s unconscious detection of safety or threat. Warm tone of voice, eye contact, and predictable routines signal safety, while harsh tones or unpredictable environments can activate defensive responses. Vagal tone, measured through heart rate variability, indicates flexibility and emotional resilience (Mansoor, 2024).

For neurodivergent individuals, vagal regulation often differs. Autistic people may have reduced ventral vagal tone, limiting access to calm, socially engaged states and increasing sensory overload and anxiety (Mansoor, 2024; Stagnitti, 2023). In ADHD, low parasympathetic control and fast sympathetic activation contribute to emotional impulsivity and inconsistent arousal regulation (Leaberry et al., 2018).

Neurodiverse traits arise from variations in brain structure, neural connectivity, and neurotransmitter activity that influence how emotions are perceived, processed, and regulated across different neurodevelopmental conditions. These differences shape social interaction, sensory perception, and emotional control, highlighting the need for supportive strategies that recognise both strengths and challenges (Baumer & Frueh, 2021; McLean, 2022). Research by Iturmendi-Sabater et al. (2025) suggest both pharmacological and behavioural interventions can assist emotional regulation, although effectiveness varies by condition, age, and individual profile.

Emotion regulation depends on communication between key brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, insula, and anterior cingulate cortex. In neurodiversity, variations in connectivity between these regions influence how emotions are generated and controlled. For example, atypical prefrontal–amygdala connectivity in autism and ADHD can reduce top-down control over emotional responses, contributing to heightened reactivity and slower recovery from stress (Bertollo et al., 2025; Goldberg, 2022). Autistic individuals may show greater amygdala sensitivity to social and sensory cues, while people with ADHD often demonstrate reduced prefrontal activation linked to inhibitory control and reward regulation (Parenti et al., 2020). Despite these challenges, such differences can also support strengths such as heightened empathy, deep emotional focus, and creativity (Goldberg, 2023).

Neurodiverse emotional profiles are also shaped by differences in neurotransmitter and hormonal systems that regulate mood, motivation, and arousal. Imbalances in dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and glutamate influence attention, impulse control, and emotional reactivity (Teleanu, 2022). In ADHD, dopamine dysregulation disrupts reward processing and inhibitory control, contributing to impulsivity and frustration (Oscar Berman et al., 2008). In autism, differences in serotonin and oxytocin activity are linked to social motivation and sensitivity to sensory stimuli (Goldberg, 2022). Hormonal factors such as cortisol and oxytocin further modulate stress and social bonding, with altered responses often observed in neurodivergent individuals (Bertollo et al., 2025).

These neurobiological variations overlap with mechanisms seen in mood disorders, emphasising the interconnectedness of emotional regulation across conditions.

Emotional regulation in the neurodiverse brain involves complex interactions between neural networks, neurotransmitters, and hormones (Teleanu, 2022). Differences in these systems can heighten reactivity but also provide adaptive advantages, such as deep focus or emotional sensitivity. Pharmacological treatments, including stimulants for ADHD and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for autism-related anxiety, may improve regulation by stabilising neural activity (Jones et al., 2024; McLean, 2022). Complementary behavioural approaches, such as emotion-focused coping and social-emotional learning programs, further enhance adaptive functioning and resilience.

Self-Regulation explains how individuals monitor, evaluate, and adjust their thoughts, emotions, and behaviours to achieve goals or respond adaptively to their environment (Laulié et al., 2023). It involves both automatic and controlled processes, including attention control, emotional modulation, and behavioural planning (Benallie et al., 2021). Difficulties in self-regulation are linked to emotional dysregulation and behavioural challenges, making it a key target for interventions that promote adaptive coping and wellbeing (Paulus et al., 2021).

Self-regulation describes how people guide their actions and emotions over time to meet personal goals. It integrates attention, motivation, and emotional control to help maintain focus, manage impulses, and adapt to changing circumstances (Newman & Newman, 2020). From a neurodiversity perspective, this process varies across individuals and reflects different regulatory styles rather than fixed deficits (Richard, 2023).

For autistic individuals like Mia, self-regulation often relies on routines and rule-based control that provide structure but limit flexibility. Sensory overload or difficulty recognising internal cues can lead to stress or withdrawal. Supports such as visual schedules and gradual exposure to change can build adaptability. In contrast, individuals with ADHD, like Mia’s classmate Eli, regulate through emotion and interest. Their focus improves when tasks are engaging and autonomy is supported but drops in repetitive settings (Champ, Adamou, & Tolchard, 2022). These differences show that effective support depends on individual strengths structure and predictability help autistic individuals, while variety and autonomy enhance regulation in ADHD (Richard, 2023; Champ et al., 2022).

Emotional impulsivity refers to rapid, intense emotional reactions that occur with limited inhibition or reflection, often leading to difficulty modulating responses to frustration or stress (Rosen & Factor, 2012). Rejection sensitivity describes the heightened tendency to perceive and overreact to cues of social rejection or criticism, often rooted in past experiences of misunderstanding or exclusion (Mitchell et al., 2012). Both processes reflect challenges in emotional control and self-awareness, influencing social relationships, academic engagement, and self-esteem.

In ADHD, emotional impulsivity can manifest as sudden anger, excitement, or frustration that interferes with problem-solving and communication. Mitchell et al. (2012) found for autistic individuals, rejection sensitivity often arises from repeated experiences of social mismatch and misinterpretation of cues. Together, these traits can heighten stress and reduce resilience if not recognised and supported.

For autistic individuals like Mia, heightened rejection sensitivity may stem from difficulties interpreting ambiguous social cues or from repeated social exclusion (Mitchell et al., 2012). Interventions that build social understanding, self-compassion, and peer inclusion can help reduce the emotional impact of perceived rejection. For those with ADHD, like Eli, emotional impulsivity reflects rapid emotional shifts driven by differences in inhibitory control (Rosen & Factor, 2012). Strategies such as mindfulness, emotion coaching, and explicit feedback can support regulation without stifling spontaneity. Recognising these emotional patterns allows teachers and caregivers to respond with empathy rather than punishment, promoting emotional growth and connection (Bondü & Esser, 2014).

Alexithymia refers to difficulty identifying, describing, and interpreting one’s own emotions (Hogeveen & Grafman, 2021). Kinnaird et al. (2019) suggest individuals with alexithymia may experience strong physiological arousal but struggle to label the emotion or understand its cause. This can lead to confusion, frustration, and limited use of adaptive coping strategies. Alexithymia is not a diagnosis itself but a trait that frequently co-occurs with autism and ADHD, influencing emotional awareness and communication (Kiraz et al., 2021). In autism, alexithymia may contribute to challenges in recognising internal emotional states, leading to delayed responses or shutdowns when overwhelmed (Hogeveen & Grafman, 2021). In ADHD, alexithymia often interacts with emotional impulsivity, making it hard to pause and reflect on what one is feeling before acting (Edel et al., 2010).

Alexithymia can significantly affect emotional regulation in both autism and ADHD by limiting awareness of internal states and reducing the ability to communicate emotions effectively. For autistic individuals like Mia, this may manifest as internalised stress and social withdrawal, while for those with ADHD, like Eli, it often contributes to impulsive emotional expression and difficulty reflecting before acting (Edel et al., 2010). Recognising and supporting alexithymia through strategies such as emotion labelling, interoceptive awareness training, and visual emotion supports can enhance self-understanding and social communication (Kinnaird et al., 2019). By addressing alexithymia directly, educators and clinicians can help neurodiverse individuals build emotional insight, reduce frustration, and strengthen adaptive coping skills.

Emotion regulation in neurodiverse individuals such as those with autism and ADHD involves complex interactions between biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Differences in neural connectivity, neurotransmitter activity, and sensory processing shape how emotions are experienced and expressed, contributing to both strengths and challenges. Psychological theories including Gross’s Process Model of Emotion Regulation, Self-Regulation Theory, and Polyvagal Theory provide frameworks for understanding these variations and identifying where regulation can break down.

For autistic individuals like Mia, emotion regulation often depends on predictability, structure, and sensory stability. In contrast, individuals with ADHD like Eli benefit from stimulation, autonomy, and emotionally engaging tasks. These differences highlight the need for flexible, individualised approaches that recognise distinct regulatory styles rather than viewing them as deficits.

Research shows that interventions combining neuroscientific insight with psychological and educational strategies such as coping skills training, emotion labelling, and social-emotional learning can improve adaptive functioning and wellbeing. By understanding the mechanisms that underlie emotional differences, educators, psychologists, and carers can respond with empathy and precision. Ultimately, supporting emotion regulation in neurodiversity requires shifting from deficit-based perspectives toward strength-based frameworks that value diversity in emotional experience. Such an approach fosters inclusion, resilience, and genuine emotional growth for neurodivergent individuals across all areas of life.